Approach to Care of Cancer free essay sample

Cancer is considered the second leading cause of death in the United States resulting in about 25% of deaths (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). The term cancer encompasses a cluster of more than one hundred diseases. Though there are various kinds of cancer, all cancers start due to abnormal cells growth. The typical characteristic of a cancerous cell is that they grow out of control and invade other tissue through the bloodstream or lymph vessels. If untreated, cancers can result in serious complications and death (American cancer Society (ACS), 2012). Although the cause of various cancers remains unknown, still there are several known causes such as: genetic factors; lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol use, diet, and physical activity; certain types of infections for example, HPV and HIV; and environmental exposures to different types of chemicals and radiation (ACS, 2014). It is predicted by ACS (2012) that 1/2 of all men and 1/3 of all women in the United States will develop cancer in their lifetime. We will write a custom essay sample on Approach to Care of Cancer or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The risk of many cancers could be minimized by lifestyle modification and screening. This paper will discuss the diagnosis and staging of cancer, three complications of the disease, side effects of treatment, and methods to minimize physical and psychological effects of cancer treatments. Diagnosis There is not a single test to confirm the diagnosis of cancer; it requires series of different test to confirm the diagnosis. It usually begins with obtaining detailed history and conducting physical examination. The patient symptoms differ depending on the type and extent of the disease. Localized symptoms of cancer relate to the primary site of the disease. The seven warning signs of cancer includes change in bowel or bladder habits, a sore that does not heal, unusual bleeding or discharge, thickening or lump in an area of the body, indigestion or difficulty in swallowing, obvious change in wart or mole, and nagging cough or hoarseness (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). Presence of any of these signs, along with detailed history, will not confirm the diagnosis but alert the practitioner to start a complete cancer work up. The work up will include imaging studies to identify location, size, and or metastasis. The imaging studies may include x-rays, computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, and positron emission tomography (PET) scans (National Cancer Institute, 2014). Lab test may include studies of blood, urine and other bodily fluids. It may also include tests for various tumor markers, which may be elevated due to presence of cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2014). For example, elevated prostate-specific antigen (PSA) may indicate prostate cancer, and elevated alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) may indicate liver cancer (Stanford Medicine, 2014). All these tests may suggest presence of cancer but to establish a definitive diagnosis and properly classify the disease biopsy is essential. A cancer diagnosis is mostly confirmed by obtaining cell or tissue sample for pathology study through biopsy. There are various methods of tissue removal for examination. For example, fine needle biopsy (fine needle aspiration), core needle biopsy (core biopsy), excisional or incisional biopsy, endoscopic biopsy, and skin biopsies (ACS, 2013). Irrespective of the technique, the goal of the microscopic examination is to confirm the diagnosis of cancer. The pathologist could usually grade and indicate the type of cancer by microscopic examination with routine processing and staining but sometimes additional tests are required. For example, immunohistochemical (IHC) or immunoperoxidase stains, electron microscopy, flow cytometry, image cytometry, cytogenetics, and Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (ACS, 2013). Staging Grading and staging in cancer is use to predict the prognosis of a malignant tumor and to plan treatment modalities. Grading denotes to the histologic classification of tumor cells and determines the degree of anaplasia. Normally grading systems classify tumors in 3-4 categories of increasing degrees of malignancy. Treatment is mostly determined by the staging of the tumor. Staging defines the site and spread of a tumor in an individual patient. Staging considers the tumor size, extent of local growth, lymph node and organ involvement, and presence of distant metastases. There are different staging systems in use; nonetheless, the international TNM staging system is most widely used system for cancer staging (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). â€Å"T† represents the main tumor, â€Å"N† indicates lymph node involvement, and â€Å"M† relates to metastasis. A numeric value is place next to each letter to specify the size and extent of the tumor and the degree of metastasis. For example, Tx means tumor is not measurable, T0 indicates no primary tumor found, Tis signifies carcinoma in situ (present but not spread), and T1-4 indicates the size and extent of the primary tumor. When referring to lymph nodes Nx means regional lymph nodes could not be evaluated, N0 denotes that no lymph node involvement present, and N1-3 indicates the degree of lymph node involvement. When staging metastasis Mx means distant metastasis cannot be evaluated, M0 denotes that there is no distant metastasis, and M1 indicates that distant metastasis is present (National Cancer Institute, 2014). Although, most types of cancer uses TNM assessment system to stage the intensity of the cancer, particular staging criteria may vary with tumors in different organ system, such as breast cancer (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). The outcomes of the staging process will govern the choice of cancer treatment. The surgery, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy may be used, separately or in combination to destroy the cancer cells. Confined local tumors may be treated with surgery and radiation therapy; however indication of metastasis would require inclusion of chemotherapy in the treatment regimen (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). Complications Complications resulting from this life threatening disease are as diverse as the numerous types of cancer itself. The severity may vary from person to person depending on the patients’ health status, stage of cancer and area or organ affected. The complications could be divided in two broad categories, such as physical and psychological complications. Physical Complications Among various physical complications pain is the most feared complication of the disease process. The mechanism of pain could relate directly to the disease itself or indirectly due to the treatment and procedures. Cancer pain may arise due to direct pressure, obstruction, invasion of metastatic cells into organs or bone, tissue destruction, and inflammation (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). The treatment and procedures such as biopsies and intravenous therapy may become additional contributing factors for pain (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). Providing adequate pain management and support for associated symptoms is a main responsibility of the healthcare team. Pain management needs to be individualized based on patient’s pain perception and response. Patients should be encouraged to report pain, but at the same time the healthcare professional needs to be mindful of social and cultural implications with respect to pain perception. Pain management  includes administration of analgesics as needed or on scheduled basis, providing options for patient-controlled analgesia, non- pharmacological interventions such as meditation, and managing activities to minimize pain (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). Another complication of cancer is bone marrow suppression which leads to anemia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia. The cause of bone marrow suppression could be invasion and destruction of blood-forming cells in the bone marrow, poor nutrition, and chemotherapeutic drugs (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). Anemia denotes to deficient circulating red blood cells. The signs and symptoms manifested by a patient may include fatigue, tachycardia, and tachypnea due to decreased oxygen-carrying capacity. Leukopenia refers to reduction in white blood cells in circulation. This jeopardizes a patient’s capability to combat infections, thus becoming a major factor for poor prognosis. The patient may demonstrate signs and symptoms of infection such as fever, chills, cough, or diarrhea. Thrombocytopenia signifies a deficit in circulating platelets, which could lead to fatal hemorrhaging. The patient could manifest signs and symptoms of bleeding such as bruises, hematuria, etc. These issues are managed by administration of blood products. In selected situations, growth factors, such as erythropoietin (Epogen) or granulocyte-stimulating factors (Neupogen), are also administered to improve the production of red and white blood cells (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). Side Effects of Treatment Surgery Surgery is the first option for patients with solid, localized tumors. In addition to providing samples for biopsy, it could be curative if the cancer is detected at an early stage. In high risk population, it is also used as a preventative intervention. Surgical intervention contains potential risks related to administration of anesthesia, risk of infection, and blood loss. Additionally, it may cause disfigurement or cause loss of function leading to physical and psychological issues (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). Depending on the issue, patients could be provided pharmacological support in case of pain and infection and counseling for psychological concerns. For prevention of infection proper wound management is necessary. Additionally provision of  prosthesis, wigs and other such supplies could help patient cope issues of altered self-image. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy entails systemic administration of anticancer chemicals as treatment for cancers. The chemotherapy drugs are cytotoxic, as they inhibit some aspect of cell division. It requires several courses of drug therapy to ensure that all tumor cells have been killed. During the therapy, normal cells are also destroyed, in particular: rapidly dividing cells of the bone marrow, intestinal epithelia, and hair follicles (Copstead, Banasik, 2010). The patient may manifest signs and symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, hair loss, memory change, fatigue, infection, bleeding, mouth and throat changes, sexual dysfunction, and pain (National Cancer Institute, 2012). Educating patients about the potential side effects and providing treatment and support as the symptoms are manifested would be the key element to assist patient during the course of treatment for better compliance. Methods to Lessen Physical and Psychological Effects According to Payne and Donaghy (2010) there is close interaction between somatic, cognitive and behavioral processes. For example any physical problem such as pain may give rise to psychological issues such as anxiety and behavioral concerns such as lack of participation in activities to avoid pain. Thus, therapeutic intervention requires unified integration of varying strategies addressing different elements in care for these patients. To cope with psychological and behavioral issues, social, emotional and professional support is crucial for a patient. This support would enable patient to deal from normal adjustment issues as well as adjustment disorders. Patients can gain knowledge and training to cope with psychological stress through various approaches. Some of the approaches are training in relaxation, meditation, or stress management; counseling or talk therapy; cancer education session; social support in group setting; exercise, and medication for depression or anxiety (National Cancer Institute, n. d. ). There are various government and non-government organizations committed to assist cancer patients and their families such as American Cancer Society. A patient could seek support from these organizations as well. To minimize physical effects of treatment pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions could be adopted. Providing detail information before initiation of treatment about side effects would alleviate anxiety to knowledge deficit. Educating patient how to deal with physical effects will increase confidence and give them feeling of control over their situation. The most common side effect of chemotherapy is nausea and vomiting. Usually patients are given antiemetic to minimize this issue. In addition patient should be provided with nutritional consultation to modify diet. Patient should be educated to take small nutritious meals and avoid foods that are hard to digest. Another side effect is leukopenia that predisposes patient to infection. Depending on patient’s WBC count, a patient may require reverse isolation or education how to prevent infection. A patient should be instructed to maintain good personal and environmental hygiene, avoid going out in public places during course of treatment, avoid direct contact with family or friends who cold or other infection, and maintain food hygiene. Fatigue due to radiation therapy or anemia could be minimized by taking short naps of less than an hour in day time, balancing period of activity with rest, getting adequate sleep at least 8 hours, eating and drinking well and doing little exercise every day (National Cancer Institute, n. d. ). To deal with issue of pain after surgery patient could be given opioid analgesics and taught relaxation techniques such as imaginary, listening to music and or meditation. Conclusion Cancer is a life threatening illness which affects individuals of all ages. The diagnosis and treatment modalities could have serious physical, psychological and social implications. Therefore, individuals require ongoing support from the healthcare professionals, family, friends, and the society for their survival. It is important to educate patient in minimizing and dealing with side effects of treatment. There are numerous government and non-government resources available for patient education and support. Knowledge of these resources can assist healthcare professionals in directing patient to these resources and improve patient outcomes.

Definition and Examples of Creoles

Definition and Examples of Creoles In linguistics, a creole is a type of  natural  language that developed historically from a pidgin and came into existence at a fairly precise point in time.  English creoles are spoken by  some of the people in  Jamaica, Sierra Leone, Cameroon, and  parts of Georgia and South Carolina. The historical  transition from a pidgin to a creole is called creolization.  Decreolization is the process by  which a creole language gradually becomes more like the standard language of a region (or the acrolect). The language that provides a creole with most of its vocabulary is called the lexifier language. For example, the lexifier language of Gullah (also called  Sea Island Creole English) is English.   Examples and Observations of Creole Creolization-  A pidgin is the combination of two or more languages which sometimes occurs in trade contact, multi-ethnic or refugee situations, where participants need a functioning common language. . . . Sometimes the pidgin becomes stable and established and comes to be spoken as a mother-tongue by children: the language has then become a creole, which quickly develops in complexity and is used in all functional settings. The process of turning a pidgin into a creole is called ​creolization.(Robert Lawrence Trask and Peter Stockwell, Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts. Routledge, 2007)-   A creole has a jargon or a pidgin in its ancestry; it is spoken natively by an entire speech community, often one whose ancestors were displaced geographically so that their ties with their original language and sociocultural identity were partly broken. Such social conditions were often the result of slavery.(John A. Holm, An Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles. Cambridge Univ ersity Press, 2000) Similar Features of CreolesLinguists have been struck by the similarities between widely separated creoles. These include such features as SVO word order, pre-verbal negation, lack of a formal passive voice, questions with the same forms as statements, and copula deletion. Some linguists argue that such similarities are evidence of an innate language faculty or bioprogram- that in conditions of impoverished linguistic input, children will nevertheless develop a fully fledged syntax based on universal grammar.(Michael Pearce, The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Routledge, 2007)Gullah-  The English variety spoken by descendants of Africans on the coast of South Carolina is known as Gullah and has been identified as a creole. Of all the vernaculars associated with African Americans, it is the one that diverges the most from (White) middle-class varieties in North America.(S.S. Mufwene, North American Varieties of English as Byproducts of Population Contacts, in The W orkings of Language, ed. by R. S. Wheeler. Greenwood, 1999)- On possible to get straight wood from crooked timber.(A Gullah  proverb,  from  The Gullah People and Their African Heritage, 2005)- The Gullah lexicon is  largely English. From his research conducted in the late 1930s, Lorenzo Turner was the first linguist to document over 4000 Africanisms in the Gullah lexicon,  many of them used as basket names (e.g. Gullah nicknames). Today you can still hear in normal everyday conversations such African retentions as  buckra white man, tita elder sister, dada mother or elder sister, nyam eat/meat, sa quickly, benne sesame, una you, and da the verb to be.  Other Gullah Africanisms such as  cooter turtle, tote to carry, okra plant food, gumbo stew, and goober peanut are widely used in mainstream American English.(Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World, ed. by  Keith Brown and Sarah Ogilvie.  Elsevier, 2009 Disagreements Over the Creole Roots of Black English in the U.S.[A]s for various arguments that Black English displays African or creole roots because of the role that aspect plays in its grammar (e.g., DeBose and Faraclas 1993), the issue is in fact not yet sufficiently examined to stand as an accepted fact. For one, tense plays a much more central role in Black English grammar than in Creoles or the West African languages of the Upper Guinea region, underlyingly marking the past and future as obligatorily as any Indo-European grammar (cf. also Winford 1998: 116). Second, typical of Creolist Hypothesis advocates generally insufficient attention to English dialects, the aspect arguments do not address the role that aspect in nonstandard British dialects may have played. This gap in argumentation alone renders the linkage of Black English aspect to Africa and creoles seriously incomplete, which is all the more significant given that there is indeed evidence that nonstandard British di alects are more aspect-focused than standard English (Trugdill and Chambers 1991).(John H. McWhorter, Defining Creoles. Oxford University  Press, 2005) Pronunciation: KREE-ol

Unit Assessment 5 professionalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Unit Assessment 5 professionalism - Essay Example In my company where gifts are not encouraged, I would accept for any gifts offered but work towards ensuring that policies of the organization are well understood to ensure that the person does not offer gifts in the future. The fact that the employee has been offering gifts for a long time may indicate two things. Firstly, the employee may not be aware of the policy regarding gifts (DuPont, 1998). Secondly, he/she may just be ignorant and not care of the consequences of going against the organizational policies. To address these issues, I would strive to have the organizational policies understood by all the staff members by sharing on their emails as well as through communication through supervisors. This way, the employee targeted will not feel victimized and will most likely stop the act. The other step that may be taken is through training to all staff members on different policies as well as offering written policies upon signing of contracts for new employees (Malin, 2000). In the event that such measure do no work on an employee, it is important to communicate the policy to the affected employee directly to ensure that they stop the habit from becoming widespread within the organization against the policies. Â   Motivation is important in ensuring that staff members work and deliver maximally in an organization. As a supervisor, working with a motivated group makes it easy to achieve organizational goals. It also reduces many problems, which may arise from internal conflicts, lack of communication and poor performance (DuPont, 1998). One of the most important methods of motivating employees is through offering a nurturing environment at the work place. A nurturing environment makes employees feel that they are cared for and that their welfare is well considered by the organization (Anderson and Bolt, 2011). For instance offering free counseling services for employees may be a good step towards a

Hofstedes Culture Work Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Hofstedes Culture Work - Case Study Example This obliviousness to the existence of 'culture' and the shared basic assumptions that unites a cultural group often leads to members of that group becoming confused or irritated when situations arise which are alien to their set of norms and expectations. Hofstede has conducted a study in which he researched some employees of Germany's E.ON in Spain. However, Hofstede's E.ON questionnaire was not designed for cultural comparisons but for organisational development. Employees gave self-report responses to about 160 items which Hofstede analysed with ingenuity; he compared scores not for individuals but between countries, which he called an "ecological analysis." He reported and analysed four dimensions of culture: Individualism versus Collectivism: "Individualism - a preference for a loosely knit social framework in society, in which individuals are supposed to take care of themselves and immediate family's only; as opposed to Collectivism - a preference for a tightly knit social framework..." Masculinity versus Femininity: "Masculinity - a preference for achievement, heroism, assertivene... iduals are supposed to take care of themselves and immediate family's only; as opposed to Collectivism - a preference for a tightly knit social framework..." Masculinity versus Femininity: "Masculinity - a preference for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material success; as opposed to Femininity - a preference for relationships, modesty, caring for the weak, and the quality of life" Uncertainty Avoidance: "the degree to which members of society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity" (Hofstede, 1983, 1991) Hofstede has made unusual efforts to elaborate the conceptual nature of his dimensions. Such extensions have also been made by others such as Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997). There is already considerable research concentrating on these dimensions, especially regarding individualism-and collectivism. Individualism versus Collectivism Our sense of identity is often dependent, to a large degree, on our sense of belonging to and affiliation with a particular group - be it family, caste, clan, tribe or class. However, in individualistic countries, much more emphasis is placed on the realisation of the individual. Independence is greatly valued and social bonds between people tend to be relatively loose and flexible. This is particularly evident in the decision-making process as decisions tend to be made by individuals in positions of authority rather than by a committee or group. On the other hand, collectivistic countries are primarily oriented towards common goals and objectives and more value is placed on group interests. In collectivistic countries, employees often expect the organisation to protect their interests by way of providing them with professional development, benefits and long term security within the organisation. Needless to say

Corporate and Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Corporate and Business Law - Essay Example This essay demonstrates that the manager as a businessman owes a duty of care to all his customers. This entails that he is bound by law to provide goods that have the best interest of his customers at hand. However, in the case scenario, the manager of ABC Ltd sells faulty goods knowingly and does not refund his customers, meaning that he is defrauding his customers. It is indeed important that the manager is held legally responsible for failing to give refunds for faulty goods, and he is compelled to sell quality goods to his customers.Contract law and sale of Goods Act are interrelated and work to salvage the contract arrived at by entities in the performance of business activities. They protect the rights of customers and ensure that the sellers are legally bound by their commitment in the contract. In the case scenario discussed, undue influence, misrepresentation, buyer beware, remedies for breach of contract, and obligations of a seller have been evaluated. This paper makes a conclusion that the sale of goods act has also been expounded in a bid to illuminate the rights and obligations of entities selling and buying goods from each other. It is through this that a contract has to involve two parties; the parties have to come to an agreement and the rights and legal obligations of the parties. These serve as the basis of rulings made in courts as a result of filled litigation and hence understanding of the underlying principles is essential for any finance person or accountant.... A similar decision was arrived at by the court of Appeal in Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots Cash Chemists (Southern) Ltd5. The outcome of this case for the defendant was important. This is since it was agreed at that by merely picking the drugs from the shelf; this did not amount to a contract between the two parties. However, a contract was arrived at when the goods were presented at the counter for sale and proper supervision was carried out. The same case applies to Tim and ABC Ltd, the advertisement displayed cannot be treated as an offer to sell by merely picking it but is an invitation to treat and will only bind into a contract once it is presented at the cash point as was done and the mistake corrected in due time. See also Fisher v Bell6. There are some exceptions to the rule of an invitation to treat where an advertisement is treated as an offer to sell. In Chapleton v Barry Urban District Council7 it was held that an attachment of price to a display of deck chairs was an offer to sell and not an invitation to treat. Subsequently, it was ruled that in a self service station, a contract is arrived at when the customer pumps the pump to fill the tank and not at the pay point. Though a weak form of defense, Tim may rely on the prospect that by ABC Ltd attaching a price to the computer, it served as an invitation to sell and not an offer to treat and hence ABC Ltd was liable for the misprice8. A2. Whether the manager’s statement of additional RAM was part of the contract The manager’s statement of additional RAM though not being right forms part of the contract. This is legally on the basis of actual undue influence as ascribed in Bank of Scotland plc v Etridge (No.2)9 where undue influence pertains to

Grays framework is an extension of Hofstedes societal values

Grays framework is an extension of Hofstedes societal values Culture is said to be an identifying mark of any group of persons. The impact of this identifying mark is felt in everything that is done in that environment such that it is reflected in their daily and operational activities. In explaining the impact of culture on activities, Hofstede (1980: 26) defined culture as the collective programming of mind that distinguishes the members of one group from another. This distinguishing factor belies characteristics that are distinct to that particular group and can be found in all aspects of life. One aspect that is not left out is the field of accounting, the impact of culture is felt such it is reflected in the accounting practices of particular environments and it defines the systems that guide the practices done in that environment. This results in huge differences in international accounting practices even though the definition of accounting has one aim- to provide decision useful information to users and to give evidence of stewardship. Outside the culture factor, other reasons have been put forth to explain the differences in accounting systems where they include legal, tax, financing system (Nobes, 2006), political ideology ( Ezzamel et al, 2007). However, Gray argues that cultural values can better explain the differences in accounting system and he bases his argument on Hofstedes theory. Going by his argument, if cultural values as posited by Hofstede are reflected in societal activities, then there should be an existing relationship such that a close pattern that between these societal values and the accounting systems practiced in those environments can be identified. He puts forward four significant accounting concepts/values (professionalism, uniformity, conservatism and secrecy) that he links with Hofstedes societal value constructs (individualism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance and masculinity/femininity). In other words, the accounting values as given by Gray can be seen as a connective point betwe en Hofstedes societal values and accounting practices. In explaining these links, he put forward four hypotheses. This paper seeks to assess the validity of the accounting concepts as put forward by Gray, seeking to establish their relationships with Hofstedes societal constructs. Grays Theoretical Reasoning. It is a well known fact that the strength of a building lies in its foundation, where the foundation is faulty, then the building itself cannot be said to be strong. Applying this fact to Grays hypotheses means that the strength of his hypotheses lays on its basis which is the Hofstedian societal value constructs. Though Hofstede collected his data over the period of 1967 to 1973, giving him enough time to incorporate changes in what he terms societal values, it has undergone criticisms in research papers. These criticisms weaken in turn weaken Grays accounting values. Some of these criticisms include the fact that the Hofstedian value framework is outdated and a weak basis on which to base the accounting values framework (Jones, 2007). In addition to this, there is the issue of measurability of the societal value constructs, the equation of national states with cultures, status of the observer, cultural homogeneity and political influences ( Baskervillle, 2003; Jones, 2007) Based on the fact that Grays framework is an extension of Hofstedes societal values, it can be said that the above criticisms apply to his accounting value theory as well, weakening the validity of his theory. Patterned after Hofstedes two dimensional societal value constructs, Gray put forward two dimensional accounting concepts as both ends of a continuum. He argues that a link exists between these concepts and each of Hofstedes societal values, where Hofstedes values are -Individualism vs Collectivism, Large power distance vs Small power distance, Strong vs Weak uncertainty avoidance and Masculinity vs femininity. The fundamental issues as regards these constructs are the degree of interdependence maintained in a society, human inequalities and relationships with authority, reaction to uncertainties and role differentiation of gender respectively. As an extension of these values, Gray puts forward these accounting values-Professionalism vs statutory control, Uniformity vs Flexibil ity, Conservatism vs Optimism and Secrecy vs Transparency where the fundamental issues in these concepts are individual judgements as opposed to statutory judgements, consistency in reporting standards as opposed to optioned standards, cautious measurements as opposed to optimistic measurements and a cautious approach to disclosure respectively. Critique of Grays Hypotheses All of Grays hypotheses imply that accounting values have a stationary nature as is also implied by Hofstedes societal values and just as Hofstede used nations to equate culture, Gray used countries as a basis for comparison, thereby generalizing as country based on accounting values that can be subject to change. Baskerville (2003) notes that the use of nation states as units for comparison is wrong, stating that this has been the case in international accounting research. A further analysis of Grays hypotheses is given below to assess its validity. Hypothesis One Gray hypothesized that the higher a country ranked in terms of individualism and the lower it ranked in terms of uncertainty avoidance and power distance then the more likely it is to rank highly in terms of professionalism. Though empirical studies carried out on this hypothesis have found support for it (Salter and Niswander, 1995 and Sudarwan and Fogarty, 1996), it can be argued that this hypothesis does not hold fully, especially when cognizance is given to the constant changes that occur even in these environments with distinguishable cultural values. In addition to this, empirical studies focused on the relationship that exist between the value construct picked out by Gray, but considering that the values given by Hofstede are two dimensional, it is also possible that the relationship posited by Gray to exist between professionalism and weak uncertainty avoidance can also exist between professionalism and strong uncertainty avoidance. This argument is based on the fact that the fundamental concept of uncertainty avoidance as given by Hofstede to be reaction to uncertainties and ambiguities. Strong uncertainty avoidance societys deal with uncertainties through the established and rigid rules and it can be argued that high levels of professionalism can be found in such societies. An example is Indonesia. Though the country is among the group classed as collectivist, strong uncertainty avoidant and large power distanced, Askary (2006) finds that Indonesia tops the list for professionalism in his study of developing countries. In the case of Germany, Heidhues and Patel (2011) finds that the Grays proposed relationship between low uncertainty avoidance and high professionalism does not hold. This is because Germany is seen a medium uncertainty avoidant country but it scores high on professionalism. This means that Grays accounting values and Hofstedes societal values can hold on some countries but not in some and this limits the generalizability of hypothesis one. In addition, going by the definition of professionalism which means independent judgement, the findings of Braun and Rodriguez (2008) does not support this hypothesis. Earnings management which requires independent judgement is meant to be related to professionalism but in their study, it is related to statutory control. Hypothesis Two The higher a country ranks in terms of uncertainty avoidance and power distance and the lower it ranks in terms of individualism then the more likely it is to rank highly in terms of uniformity. Empirical studies on Grays argument for this hypothesis are mixed in that not all the purported values given by Gray can be linked to uniformity. The issue of applicability limits this hypothesis. Gray defined uniformity as a preference for uniform accounting practices and countries in the western world are said to have a preference for flexible standards according to their perceived needs. However, the strength of this hypothesis is invalidated when the accounting standards used in the developed countries are considered. Though they are classed as countries that prefer flexible standards, the countries tend to use uniform standards in the name of enhancing their comparability. In addition to this, there is the issue of global reporting standards, which the UK and the US are founding members. The desire by both countries for a uniform accounting standards via global reporting standards reflects the weakness of the Hofstede-Gray framework. In line with this argument, Roberts and Salter (1999) test the relationships on the big 6 at that time and find that uncertainty avoidance (reaction to ambiguities) is not positively related to uniformity. The strength of any given hypothesis is in the positive relationships of all variables used in forming the hypothesis. Given that one of the relationships for this hypothesis does not hold, it can be argued that there are other values which result in uniformity of accounting practices. This means that not all of the relationships as hypothesized by Gray hold. Gray states that both hypotheses are most relevant to the authority and enforcement, however, the definition of the terms limits the extent of relevance that can be established. Gray defines the accounting values as a preference and not an exact activity carried out by accountants (Baydoun and Willett, 1995; Heidhues and Patel, 2011). For example, professionalism is defined as a preference for individual professional judgement and how this preference relates to the exercise of authority is not clear. Who exercises the authority? How many authoritative sources are there? Given the fact that professionalism belies opinionated judgement, this could refer to a number of individuals. Hypothesis Three The higher a country ranks in terms of uncertainty avoidance and the lower it ranks in terms of individualism and masculinity then the more likely it is to rank highly in terms of conservatism. Empirical studies support Grays reasoning on this hypothesis (Salter and Niswander, 1995; Sudarwan and Fogarty, 1996, Doupnik and Ritcher, 2004) especially for the strong link but I would argue that the fact that a country dislikes ambiguous situations does not mean that it would be highly conservative, this is based on the fact that situations change and changing situations bring about a change in accounting methods used. This is a fact that the Grays framework does not take into consideration. In line with this argument, Arnold et al (2001) finds that an increase in uncertainty avoidance leads to an increase in materiality estimates. This supports the fact that changes in situations are incorporated into accounting activities and that a country that is highly conservative today would not nec essarily be conservative the next day. Regarding the relationship between conservatism and individualism, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance, it can be argued that these relationships are also subject to change. Going by the definition of masculinity, a high desire for quality of life can also lead to flexibility in accounting standard. Along this line of thought, Sudarwan and Fogarty (1996) found no relationship between masculinity and conservatism. This means that the accounting value of conservatism as defined by Gray limits the extent of connection that can be made between the relationships. For example, the word cautious approach can be seen to be a little muddy. Is it possible for the level of cautiousness taken by accountants to be placed on a continuum such that the varying levels can be used to seek for a matching relationship between the variables? Hypothesis Four The higher a country ranks in terms of uncertainty avoidance and power distance and the lower it ranks in terms of individualism and masculinity then the more likely it is to rank in terms of secrecy. Empirical support for this hypothesis is inconclusive; Sudarwan and Fogarty (1996) find that the relationship between uncertainty avoidance and secrecy is negative and a non significant relationship between power distance and secrecy (Salter and Niwander, 1995). This can be viewed as rendering the practicability of Grays argument as quite unfit and therefore invalidates the hypothesis. The relationships as argued by Gray is vague and can be argued to have a different meaning. Gray states that hypotheses three and four relate to measurement and disclosure. As noted in the first two hypotheses, the relationship between the conservatism and measurement or secrecy and disclosure remains unclear. Baydoun and Willett (1995) argue that the interpretation of this relationship is tenable owing to the fact that secrecy can be seen as a social characteristic and that its importance in determining accounting values is not evident. Other problems with Grays theory include measuring the terms used in the hypotheses, the fact that it applicable in some countries and not in others as well as the implied presence of other values in determining accounting practices (Baydoun and Willett, 1995; Doupnik and Tsakumis, 2004; Heidhues and Patel, 2011). Applicability of Grays Theory in the Use of IFRS Grays theory can be seen as a contribution to the literature on the harmonization of accounting and the essence of most literature in that line of research aim to help the easy adoption and increasing use of the international financial reporting standards. Furthermore, a lot of countries are adopting the international financial reporting standards (herein after referred to as IFRS) despite the differences in culture. The successful adoption and implementation of the IFRS in countries means that Grays theory of cultural influences is outdated in that culture is no longer deemed to be a barrier to international accounting systems. However, to assess the usefulness of Grays theory in assisting with the increasing use of IFRS, Spain will be used to check the applicability of Grays theory. Spain is a country whose accounting system is defined as that of a Continental European standard, this is as a result of the fact that its legal system is Roman law and that its accounting laws are embe dded in its legislation. Going by Hofstedes classification, Spain has a medium individualist culture, medium power distance, low masculinity and high uncertainty avoidance. Using Grays framework to classify their accounting systems places them as a country with more emphasis on uniformity, more emphasis on conservatism, less emphasis on professionalism and less emphasis on secrecy. Going by Grays framework, one major problem with Spains accounting systems is the preference for conservative measurements and reporting as opposed to the true and fair value methods of the IFRS. Moreover, the adoption of IFRS is meant to improve the quality of financial information, enhance comparability, and strengthen the integration and competitiveness of capital markets (Zeghal and Mhedhbi, 2006). Though the country has adopted IFRS, it has come across a few problems. Callao et al (2007) notes that the adoption of IFRS in Spain has not improved comparability of accounts, it has worsened it. They also find out relevance of financial information has not improved. This invalidates Grays theory in that the cultural differences in accounting systems as identified by his framework, though logical, it seems to have been ignored by the International Accounting Standards Board. An application of Grays hypotheses is tabulated for Spain to check its overall validity and practicability. Societal/ Accounting Values Medium Individualism Medium Power Distance Low Masculinity High Uncertainty Avoidance Strength of the Hypotheses Professionalism ns ns Pos. Weak Uniformity ns ns Pos. Weak Conservatism ns Pos Pos Semi- strong Secrecy ns ns Pos Pos Semi-strong Where ns: no relationship and pos. : positive relationship From this table, the practicability of Grays theory is not strong. Hofstedes values make room for moderating along the continuum as can be seen from Spain been a medium individualist culture. Gray did make provision for countries like Spain who fall in the middle of the continuum. Splitting Grays hypotheses into bits shows the weaknesses of his framework and implies an impracticability of the framework. This also implies that Grays theory is country specific and as noted by Heidhues and Patel (2011), the values were constructed using the US and the UK as a base. Conclusion The practicability of Grays hypotheses has been argued above; the problems have been highlighted alongside the impact of the framework for the applicability of IFRS. As noted above, there is room for improvement if the theory is to be valid. In addition to this, Heidhues and Patel (2011) note that Grays framework was accepted in the academic world without criticism and they point to the fact that this might be as a result of his being seen as one of the leading international accounting researchers. The impact of changes was not incorporated into the framework and this is very important considering that societal dynamism is constant. This alone reduces the reasonability behind Grays framework.

Dreams in F. Scott Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby Essay -- F. Scott Fit

Dreams in F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, is a novel about the American Dream. In the Great Gatsby, the dream is that one can acquire happiness through wealth and power. To get his happiness Jay attempts to reacquire the love of his lost sweet heart, Daisy. The main problem with Jay's dream is that Daisy is married. Gatsby's personal dream symbolizes the larger American Dream 'The pursuit of happiness'. Jay Gatsby longs for the past. Surprisingly he devotes his adult life trying to recapture it and dies in its pursuit. In the past, Jay had a love affair with a young rich girl, Daisy. Daisy and Jay had fallen in love with each other in spite of knowing that they could not marry because of the difference in their social status. For the first time in Jay?s life he was truly happy. During their courtship, Jay was sent off to war. Upon returning from the war, Jay found out that Daisy had married a wealthy man by the name of Tom Buchannon. Jay then spends his life acquiring wealth to reach her economic standards, in hope that he can marry her and rekindle the happiness that he once had. His love for Daisy was impossible in society because "he was at present a penniless young man without a past?he had no comfortable family standing behind him" (156). Gatsby encounters his dream of love at this point of his life. He knew that at that time a relationship of love was impossible with Daisy due to his low social standing. Gatsby became determined to breach that gap between them in order to have a loving relationship with Daisy. He did reach the physical circumstances necessary to love her, but he had focused too much on money and power the previous five years of his life. He wanted his love with Daisy to flourish. Unfortunately, he had lost the ability to love. He no longer possessed moral integrity or the ability to handle a relationship. Society is often broken up into different social groups by their economic status. Those of lower classes believe that their problems will go away if they can gain enough wealth to reach the upper class. Many people believe that the American Dream is this joining of the upper class, and once reaching that point, not having to be concerned about money at all. The logic behind this is that being poor keeps people from being happy, a... ... past. And finally, Jay?s dream was his own death, in that the rest of his life was spent trying to relive the past. His dream consumed his life so much that it had changed him to the point where he was no longer a human. He was more of a zombie who was driven to do anything it would take to realize his dream. The Great Gatsby as he came to be known, was just a young boy who wanted love more than anything else in life. His strong ambition, and immoral ways to achieve his dream took him to his grave. His life in this story is one of constantly wanting what other people have, whether it is money, social standing, or another man?s wife. It is my belief that is what F. Scott Fitzgerald wants us to take home with us. The dangers of coveting what other people have. Bibliography: Novelguide.com. ?Novel Analysis, The Great Gatsby.? Online. Available: http://www.novelguide.com/thegreatgatsby/novelsummary.html. June 9, 2000. Andrew Dilling. ?The Great Gatsby Website.? Online. Available: http://www.geocities.com/andrew_dilling/. June 9, 2000. Fitzgerald, F. Scott (1996). The Great Gatsby The Authorized Text. New York, NY: Addison Wesley Longman Inc.

People today freely use The Internet Essay

People today freely use The Internet, E-mail, and Online Messaging to communicate with other people. It’s a great way to talk to loved ones who live far away, conduct business, and just have fun with friends, but there is a downside. People who we don’t know can obtain information about us by tracking e-mails and messages and unless these things are encrypted, everything we write can be pulled up and used against us. That is why people who use the Internet need to be much more aware of their online privacy and security. The Internet started in 1969 by the U. S. overnment. They wanted a communication system that couldn’t be destroyed in the event of an emergency. It consisted of four computers linked together called DARPANET. In the 1970’s people found that they could use this system to send messages between the computers to get to other people. More and more people started using this system and by the end of the 70’s, it was international. The earliest found company to use instant messaging was Mirabilis in November of 1996. Instant messaging is like a telephone conversation done between two people on the computer in real time. Popular companies that have instant messaging are AOL, Yahoo, and NET Messenger Service. E-mail or Electronic Mail is a way of composing, sending, and receiving messages over the computer. E-mail started in 1965, which means it actually began before the Internet and in fact helped start the Internet. First e-mail was used for multiple users to communicate through a mainframe computer. Now even though the government does not have control over the Internet in present day, they can still monitor what individuals are writing especially after September 11th. â€Å"The Sept. 1 terrorists relied heavily on the Internet, and the hijackers appear to have plotted their carnage using Yahoo e-mail. † The FBI believes they can now catch suspected terrorists by looking at suspicious email, but what constitutes suspicious? They have developed a program called Carnivore that looks through e-mail to find suspicious information. But, critics of this are not so sure of it’s benefits becau se it can be used to look for keywords such as â€Å"hijack† in mass amounts of e-mails, and whenever it finds an e-mail or message that has that word the FBI is entitled to read that message. If someone is just asking another person through e-mail about the current terrorist situation will that set off an alarm with the FBI and now that person’s e-mails will be tracked? Very possibly. The PATRIOT (Provide Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism) Act provides investigators with more flexibility to pursue interception of e-mail messages, and monitoring of Web surfing and other PC-based communications. But does the general public believe that that government should have the right to look into private e-mails if they could catch a terrorist by doing it? According to a survey of PCWorld. m, â€Å"a total of 60 percent said they had serious concerns about giving the government more access to personal e-mail while 38 percent said they had little or no concern. † While the government and FBI feel that this is a completely legitimate way to weed out the terrorists in America, many others find it a complete invasion of privacy. This isn’t only a government vs. he people issue. As of 2004, â€Å"1 in 5 companies has had employees’ electronic messages subpoenaed in the course of a lawsuit or regulatory investigation† and â€Å"another 13 percent of 840 companies surveyed this year have battled workplace lawsuits triggered by employee e-mail. This means that private emails being sent while at work can be retrieved and used against a person in a court of law. The right to privacy is completely being revoked in these situations. That is why Americans need to be more aware of how to protect their privacy and there are ways to do this. First is by looking at the actual disclaimers that most people just sign without actually reading. American Online or AOL and Yahoo are two major providers of both e-mail and instant messaging. Looking into what their privacy policies are, you find this. Your AIM information consists of personally identifiable information collected or received about you when you register. Your AIM information may be shared within AOL and its business divisions. Your AIM information, including the contents of your online communications, may be accessed and disclosed in response to legal process (for example, a court order, search warrant or subpoena), or in other circumstances in which AOL has a good faith belief that AIM or AOL are being used for unlawful purposes. AOL may also access or disclose your AIM information when necessary to protect the rights or property of AIM or AOL, or in special cases such as a threat to your safety or that of others. (http://www. aol. com/info/p_privacy. adp. ) Yahoo’s disclaimer is similar saying that â€Å"Yahoo! collects personally identifiable information when you register for a Yahoo! account,† and â€Å"we reasonably believe it is necessary to share information in order to investigate, prevent, or take action regarding illegal activities. Basically both are stating that, for the most part, our privacies are protected unless there is a need to look at the e-mails or messages being sent. That is a big but though. People should read that and decipher that the government or business we work at could basically make up a story as to why they need to read an email and both of these e-mail companies would have to comply. That really isn’t protecting us. At least we should know ahead of time though that these are the company policies so it shouldn’t come as a surprise if our privacy was breached. This brings us to the concept of encryption. â€Å"Chances are that nobody is watching the data you send out, but unless the information is over a secure (encrypted) connection, you can’t be reasonably sure that it’s safe. † The definition of encryption is â€Å"the process of encoding information in such a way that only the person (or computer) with the key can decode it. † There are different encryption systems, but essentially two computers have secret codes that hold the key to decoding the messages sent between them. So if a message is encrypted, only your friend’s computer will be able to read what you sent to them. Does this type of security interest the common person? It definitely should and is quite easy to obtain. There are messenger services that provide e-mail and instant messaging. One is called Hushmail, which includes encryption enhancements. All you have to do is sign up for it just like you would Yahoo! or AOL and the only downside is that storage space is limited. But the option is out there for people to choose safety over unnecessary storage. Yahoo! nd AOL are the trusted and most used e-mail and instant message companies so most people just subscribe to these two, but really need to research what else is out there in regards to encrypted messaging companies like Hushmail. Customers of AOL though can upgrade to AIM 5. 2, which uses encrypted messages. Yahoo! on the other hand only has a form of encryption. The â€Å"system sends the message unprotected to Yahoo’s server. The recipient is given a URL to view the document on an SSL-protected web page. † Consumers feel this is a weak link because the message is still being sent without it being secure, but it is a step forward. There are other simple general steps that a consumer should do or at least think about before signing onto an e-mailing system. One is to always know the software that you are downloading onto your computer. Many programs appear to be legitimate, but they really just want to get your information and use it for bad reasons that veer into your personal privacy. Also, if a person shares a computer with many people, like a college library system, that person needs to make sure they clear their passwords and personal information before leaving their seat. And basically people just need to be more suspicious. Even though that’s a bad outlook, if you’re messages are not encrypted, then you need to be more aware of what you’re writing. If you think it could be construed in a negative way, then you shouldn’t send it over an unprotected system that could one-day work against you. In conclusion, â€Å"although companies and other entities operating in the online or electronic commerce environment have a responsibility to ensure the privacy of personally identifiable information online, the Online Privacy Alliance believes that consumers also have a role to play. Consumers should look for privacy policies on the web sites they visit as well as be aware of the various self-enforcement mechanisms currently available. †After the tragedy of September 11th, the government does need to do certain things in order to further protect our country against another attack, but this shouldn’t mean attacking American’s privacy and security. Americans shouldn’t have to live in constant fear of Big Brother looking into our personal letters and messages to loved ones and friends, and also shouldn’t be afraid that some things being said are going to be taken the wrong way. That is the opposite of making us feel more secure and safe because that basically means we’re being attacked from within our own government. Saying that, there are many things that we, as consumers, are responsible for knowing what is out there to give us more security. There is encryption and the big companies out there that provide e-mail and instant messaging are getting on board and providing encrypted programs for us to use. We should also be responsible enough to actually read all disclaimers that we usually don’t bother to read so that we are not shocked when we learn that the government just looked at our private message to someone. It’s hard as one person to fight something like Carnivore, but we can do simple things like read disclaimers, be smart about what e-mail programs we subscribe to and be safe and responsible when we are on the Internet.

3 Idiots Essay Essay Example

3 Idiots Essay Essay Example 3 Idiots Essay Essay 3 Idiots Essay Essay 3 Idiots is a Bollywood movie that released worldwide on 25th December 2009. It was produced by Vidhu Vinod Chopra and directed by Rajkumar Hirani. The movie has three histrions playing the lead functions. hence the movie is named 3 Idiots. The three lead histrions are: Aamir Khan. Sharman Joshi and R Madhavan. These three are the superb pupils of their several high schools. While Boman Irani portrays the function of the college manager of the college which these three pupils join after graduating from their high schools. Besides. there is a little function played by Kareena Kapoor. She is the taking lady of the movie and plays the function of the director’s girl. The movie displays the importance of acquisition and instruction in our lives. The movie trades with the instruction system in India and how the pupils are unable to get by up to the force per unit area because of the inordinate sums of tests and assignments. 3 Idiots is a narrative of three bright pupils who have acquired a GPA of 10. 00 ( on a graduated table of 10. 00 ) in their high schools. They enter the most esteemed college for technology in India: The Imperial College of Engineering. Rancho is a character played by Aamir Khan. He loves machines and that is the ground he wants to prosecute mechanical technology. Raju. the character played by Sharman Joshi doesn’t unrecorded life to the fullest. He is scared of the assignments and tests. He wants to work really difficult and acquire a good occupation as he comes from a hapless household and he is the merely 1 to back up his household. Farhan is the name of the character played by R Madhavan. Farhan wants to be a wildlif e lensman but he joins the college of technology because his male parent wants him to be a mechanical technology as he has really good classs in his school. While Viru Sahastrabuddhe is the manager of the college which is played by Boman Irani. Viru is a really rigorous professor and maintains his force per unit area upon his pupils. There is an incident in the movie which shows that a pupil commits suicide because he doesn’t supply sufficient clip to him for finishing the undertaking. The pupils are unable to take such force per unit area and they believe that it’s clip for them to stop their life. This is a true state of affairs and such force per unit area exists in most of the colleges in India. Rancho loves technology so he doesn’t have jobs with the tests and assignments. While Raju and Farhan are unable to acquire good classs as they feel the force per unit area of the instruction system. Rancho asks Farhan to alter his field of survey from technology to wildlife picture taking as Farhan ever wanted to go a wildlife lensman. He advises Raju to set away his fright and it would assist him to win in his test. In the 3rd twelvemonth of technology recruiters hire pupils. Viru says that Raju and Farhan would merely be able to acquire the occupations merely when they pass with good classs in the concluding test. To intentionally neglect them he sets the paper himself. increasing the trouble degree. Viru’s girl Pia comes to cognize about this. s o she informs Rancho. Rancho tries to steal the paper and is caught by the manager. He decided to rusticate all the three for their act. Pia informs his male parent about the existent ground that took her brother’s life. Viru thought that his boy had died in a auto accident but subsequently he comes to cognize that he committed suicide as he didn’t want to prosecute technology. He was forced by his male parent to go an applied scientist while he wanted to analyze literature. This is the ground why he committed self-destruction. Knowing this truth he decides non to rusticate the three pupils. This movie is based on a novel by Chetan Bhagat titled Five Point Someone- What Not To Make At IIT. Bhagat’s novel besides involves the same three lead characters but with different names. The rubric of the fresh â€Å"Five Point Someone† is based on the five point graduated table which is used to cipher the GPA at the Indian Institute of Technology. Chetan Bhagat is being regarded as the ‘biggest selling English writer in India’s history ’ ( Chandrakar ) . Chetan Bhagat feels really proud that his book and his message have received a wider audience because of the movie. Peoples presents are less likely to read a book. So. the message of the writer is spread throughout the universe where the movie would be released. Chetan Bhagat is a outstanding Indian author who has written several other bestselling novels such as 2 States. One Night at a Call Center and 3 Mistakes of My Life. All of these are being made into different films. The movie 3 Idiots finely portrays the instruction system of India by demoing precisely what happens with the pupils of a peculiar technology college. Students have to get by up with high sums of force per unit area to go through the test. Committing self-destruction is non a solution to the job. but contending against the system to better it can work out the job to a certain extent. This movie shows that Rancho argues with the manager to do him understand that the manner of instruction is wrong and he blames the system for this. During an academic twelvemonth pupils have several tests to take which involves huge course of studies and besides undertakings need to be completed within a short span of clip. The movie besides motivates people to analyze what they like and non what their parents would inquire them to. The manager of the movie makes an attempt to expose the critical status of the instruction system of India in the signifier of a superb film which is entertaining and besides sends an of import message out to the viewing audiences.

Breastfeeding Nutrition Research Paper

Breastfeeding Nutrition Research Paper Free Online Research Papers Chapter I THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND The arrival of an infant surely brings incomparable joy to every family. But how they raise them will play a significant role later when infants become adults and begin to interact in the world around them. Because the family inculcates control and a sense of what is right, upon the arrival of an infant who is then considered to be a new member of the family, decisions have to be made particularly by the mother, and one of which is in terms of how to feed her infant. Any parent or caregiver would want to make sure that their infant is right on track in his physical and mental growth. It is every family’s desire to see their children grow smarter and become a top of their class. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Early childhood nutrition is thought to have important effects on education, broadly defined to include the various forms of learning. A number of previous studies have contributed to the current conventional wisdom about the impact of nutrition on education in developing countries. In the early years of the human species, breastfeeding was as common as it was for other mammals feeding their young. There were no alternative foods for the infants, and the mother, along with other lactating females, would have no choice but to breastfeed their infant. Breastfeeding is the process of a woman feeding an infant or young child with milk produced from her breast, usually directly from the nipples. On the other hand, formula feeding is an industrially produced milk product designed for infant consumption. Usually, based on either cow or soymilk, infant formula strives to duplicate the nutrient content of natural human breast milk. Besides breast milk, infant formula is the only other infant milk which the medical community considers nutritionally acceptable for infants under the age of one year. Many mothers do manage to combine feeding by breast and bottle-this is sometimes known as mixed feeding. Mother’s, who return to work or know they’re going to be separated from their baby for a length of time, may choose to use a combination of breast milk and formula. Some mothers express their breast milk so their baby can continue having breast milk when they’re not together. Evidence suggests that infant feeding practices can have a significant effect in the child’s cognitive development. A study was conducted in Christ church School of Medicine in New Zealand that studied over 1,000 children and during the period from birth to 1 year, they gathered information on how these children were fed. They were then followed to age 18. Over the years, the researchers collected a range of cognitive and academic information on the children, including IQ (intelligent quotient), teacher ratings of school performance in reading and math, and results of standardized tests of reading comprehension, mathematics, and scholastic ability. The researchers also looked at the number of passing grades achieved in national school certificate examinations taken at the end of the third year of high school. The results indicated that the longer children had been breastfed, the higher they scored on such tests. (PEDIATRICS 1998) Formula fed babies, on average, have IQ’s about ten points lower than their breastfed counterparts. This is most likely related to special fatty acids and other components in breastmilk that are known to promote brain cell growth, development of vision and the nervous system. These components are absent in formula (Newman,Solveig 2000) Each chronological age has corresponding developmental tasks, both physical and psychosocial. (Murray,Atkinson 2000) Somewhere around age 7, children begin to acquire the ability to relate a series of happenings to mental representations that can be expressed both verbally and symbolically. (Whaley Wong (1993). This research is to conduct a study among grade 1 pupils to determine if there is a difference between the different infant feeding techniques on their academic performance. What stimulated the mind of the researcher in coming up with the idea of this study is thru someone who is doing well in class and a fellow classmate was wondering what type of milk her mom used to nourish her when she was still an infant. The researchers would like to seek answers based on speculations encountered from different people who were curious to know what is the appropriate feeding technique best suitable to them without compromising the essential nutritional benefit needed for their infant’s welfare. The researcher’s decision to conduct a study on the Grade 1 pupils of Columban College, considering if there’s a difference on the chosen feeding technique in their academic performance. In most countries, formal education begins between age 6 to 7 pupils are socially ready to learn in a structured setting and concrete operational thought processes begins. The concrete operation includes systematic reasons, uses memory to learn broad concepts and subgroups by concepts. School-age children can discover concrete solutions to everyday problems and recognize cause and effect relationships. The researchers chose Columban College primarily because it is a private institution where formers believe that infant feeding techniques encompass all members of society regardless of souci-economic status. Secondly, one of the researchers is an alumnus of the school hence, the cooperation of the school was easily sought and it expressed its interest to participate in study wholeheartedly. This research will promote awareness and serve as a reference to be used for future health teaching especially on the differences of the infant feeding techniques. B. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This study aims to determine the difference between the different infant feeding techniques and the academic performance of currently enrolled grade 1 pupil of Columban College. Specifically, the researchers aim to answer the following questions: 1. What is the profile of the subjects according to gender? 2. What is the type of infant feeding technique practiced by the primary caregiver of the pupil? 3. What is the difference between the different infant feeding techniques used by the primary caregiver of the pupil and the latter’s academic performance in the current academic year? C. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The result of the study will be significant to the following: FAMILY This will provide awareness regarding the benefits of the various feeding practices especially in the academic performance of their children. RESEARCHERS This study can serve as a starting point which could open the door for further research regarding milk feeding. This is designed to provide learning and discussion about different infant feeding technique. Hence, provide basic tools of knowledge and experience of knowledge and experience that will enable the researcher to provide thoughtful counseling and guidance to the family. This will also serve as a reference for other researchers. NURSING PROFESSION As part of the health care team tasked to provide health teaching to pregnant mothers, this study will provide an evidence-based approach in discussing the salient points of infant feeding practices. COMMUNITY The community will be provided a baseline data for legislation purpose in support and modification of infant feeding programs. Various stakeholders of the community will be provided with information that the academic performance of a child is influenced by their different infant feeding techniques. D. HYPOTHESIS There is no significant difference between the different infant feeding techniques and academic performance. E. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS FIGURE 1 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Maslows Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself. Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we concerned with the higher order needs of influence and personal development. Maslows original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between 1943-1954, and first widely published in Motivation and Personality in 1954. At this time the Hierarchy of Needs model comprised five needs. This original version remains for most people the definitive Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow said that needs must be satisfied in the given order. Aims and drive always shift to next higher order need Maslows Hierarchy of Needs is an excellent model for understanding human motivation, but it is a broad concept. If you are puzzled as to how to relate given behavior to the Hierarchy it could be that your definition of the behavior needs refining. For example, where does doing things for fun fit into the model? The answer is that it cant until you define doing things for fun more accurately. Youd need to define more precisely each given situation where a person is doing things for fun in order to analyze motivation according to Maslows Hierarchy since the fun activity motive can potentially be part any of the five original Maslow needs. Understanding whether striving to achieve a particular need or aim is fun can provide a helpful basis for identifying a Maslow driver within a given behavior, and thereby to assess where a particular behavior fits into the model: Biological health, fitness, energizing mind and body, etc. Safety order, and structure needs met for example by some heavily organized, structural activity Belongingness a team sport, club family and relationships Esteem competition, achievement, recognition Self-Actualization drivers challenge, new experiences, love of art, nature, etc. However in order to relate a particular doing it for fun behavior the Hierarchy of Needs we need to consider what makes it fun (ie rewarding) for the person. If the behaviour is for fun, then consider what makes it fun for the person is the fun rooted in belongingness, or is it from recognition, ie., esteem. Or is the fun at a deeper level, from the sense of self-fulfillment, i.e .self-actualization. Apply this approach to any behavior that doesnt immediately fit the model, and it will help you to see where it does fit. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs will be a blunt instrument if used as such. The way you use the Hierarchy of Needs determines the subtlety and sophistication of the model. For example, the common broad-brush interpretation of Maslows famous theory suggests that that once a need is satisfied the person moves onto the next, and to an extent, this is entirely correct. However an overly rigid application of this interpretation will produce a rigid analysis, and people and motivation are more complex. So while it is broadly true that people move up (or down) the hierarchy, depending whats happening to them in their lives, it is also true that most peoples motivational set at any time comprises elements of all of the motivational drivers. For example, self-actualizers (level 5 original model) are mainly focused on self-actualizing but are still motivated to eat (level 1) and socialize (level 3). Similarly, homeless folk whose main focus is feeding themselves (level 1) and finding shelter for t he night (level 2) can also be, albeit to a lesser extent, still concerned with social relationships (level 3), how their friends perceive them (level 4), and even the meaning of life (level 5 original model). Like any simple model, Maslows theory not a fully responsive system its a guide which requires some interpretation and thought, given which, it remains extremely useful and applicable for understanding, explaining and handling many human behavior situations. F. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Figure 2. Nutrition is one of the various factors that affect learning ability and skills before and after the child is in school. Learning can be viewed as a multiple input and output process. Hence, the effects of a particular input like nutrition could vary depending on the learning outcomes measured. The framework of this study posits that the academic performance of the pupil may be explained by the feeding technique used during 0-5 months of age. Academic performance is categorized according to the final grade obtained from the school year 2005-2006 as reflected in the pupils report card as outstanding, very satisfactory, satisfactory, moderately satisfactory, and needs improvement. Infant feeding technique includes Breastfeeding, bottle-feeding. and Mixed Feeding. G. SCOPE AND DELIMITATION The study will focus on the following: The type of infant feeding technique practiced by the primary caregiver of the pupil. The difference between infant feeding techniques used by the primary caregiver of the pupil and the latter’s academic performance in the current academic year. Limitation of the Study One limiting factor that was faced by the researchers is their limited knowledge and skills and the resources needed in conducting the study. Since this is the first research conducted by the researchers, guidance, and help from different professionals were solicited on how to go about the entire study. Time has also become a great consideration to conduct the study in a much bigger population. The total population of grade 1 pupil in Columban College is 142 however 105 of the population were surveyed, the remaining 37 pupils were not included because some of them have dropped out earlier in the school year after the 2nd grading period and others were fetched by respondents who did not meet the criteria of being a primary caregiver when the pupils was 0-5 months old set by the researchers. Limitation of the study also includes the 0 to 5 months as the duration of their feeding because, on their 6th months, infants are usually given solid foods as complementary supplements. Delimitation of the Study The subjects had 5 academic subjects. These are Christian Living, English (Reading and Language), Filipino, Mathematics and Makabayan which includes Music, Arts, and P.E. (MAPE) and Sibika. The pupils are taught by 1 teacher each section for the entire school year. The grades in the computation of the final grade of the subjects were only from SY 2005-2006. Factors that may affect the subject’s performance such as environment, study habits, physical, emotional, psychological capabilities, socioeconomic, feeding duration, nutritional factors, the supplementary feeding received by the subject, length of time caring for the pupil, monthly family income, highest educational attainment of the respondent, brand or type of milk used in the feeding technique were considered delimitations of the study. The study is also not concerned with the composition of the different infant feeding technique. H. DEFINITION OF TERMS Infant Feeding Technique – refers to the technique of nourishing or feeding infants from 0 to 5 in months that used either breastfeeding, formula feeding or mixed feeding (combination of breastfeeding and formula feeding). Breastfeeding – refers to the feeding technique where the infant receives breast milk as a source of nourishment during 0-5 months. Formula Feeding – refers to the feeding technique that used formula milk commercially available in the market as a source of nourishment during 0-5 months. May also refer to bottle-feeding. Mixed Feeding – refers to the feeding technique that simultaneously used both breastfeeding and formula feeding as a source of nourishment during 0 to 5 months regardless of time of introduction. Academic Performance – refers to the pupil’s overall class performance for the school year 2005-2006 as reflected by the pupils’ final grade. Performance is categorized as follows: Outstanding- grades range from 94 and above Excellent –grades range from 88–93 Very satisfactory –grades range from 82-87 Satisfactory – grades range from 76-81 Poor – grades range from 70-75 Final grade – the final general average of each pupil determined by dividing the sum of his average rating in each subject by the total number of the subjects. Subjects include Christian Living, English ( reading and language) Filipino, Mathematics, Makabayan ( Music, Arts, Physical Education, And Sibika ). Measurement of achievement include quizzes, recitation, homework, project/themes, Religious involvement for CL and periodic test. Subject- refers to the currently enrolled Grade 1 pupils of Columban College for the school year 2005-2006. Primary Care giver- refers to the person/s who took care of the pupil from 0-5 months. also refers to a respondent. Duration of Feeding – refers to the period of nourishing the pupil during 0-5 months of age using different infant techniques. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Early childhood care for survival, growth, and development comprises the practices of caregivers that day by day, attentively and warmly; translate resources into survival, growth and psychosocial development of infant and children. Under UNICEF’s conceptual framework for infant and child feeding and development, six key care practices are at the center of attention: (1) care for women, (2) breastfeeding and feeding practices, (3) psychosocial care, (4) food preparation, (5) hygiene practice, (6) home health practices. Nutrition is the science or study of the appropriate diet to promote health. Good nutrition from an early age is vital for a child’s proper mental and physical development. It is known that good nutrition and rich experiences affect brain development. 40% of adult mental ability is formed in the first three years of life. (WHO 2002). Nutrition is an important aspect to the cognitive development of children. Nutrition during the early stages of a child’s life can link to performance in later years. Children are very important to our future, therefore, good nutrition is necessary for the development and growth of a child. In Kozier 2004, cognitive development refers to the manner in which people learn to think, reason, and use language. It involves a person’s intelligence, perceptual ability, and ability to process information. Cognitive development represents a progression of mental abilities from illogical to logical thinking, from simple to complex problem solving, and from understanding concrete ideas to understanding abstract concepts. The most widely known cognitive theorist is Jean Piaget. His cognitive development theory is an orderly, sequential process in which a variety of new experiences must exist before intellectual abilities can develop. Piaget’s cognitive development process is divided into five phases: sensorimotor phase (birth to 2 years), pre-conceptual phase (2-4 years), intuitive thought phase (4-7 years), concrete operation phase (7-11 years), and formal operations (11-15). BREASTFEEDING The most common reasons mothers chose breastfeeding includes benefits to the infants health, naturalness, and emotional bonding with the infant (Mc Junkin 2000). It is the position of the American Dietetic Association (ADA) that exclusive breastfeeding provides optimal nutrition and health protection for the first 6 months of life, and breastfeeding with complementary foods for at least 12 months is the ideal feeding pattern for infants. Increasing duration of breastfeeding was accompanied by a gradual increase in cognitive developmental benefit. (Riva,E. 1996) According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, the breastfed infant is the reference against which all alternative feeding methods must be measured with regard to growth, health, development, and other outcomes. Human milk has many beneficial effects on the health of infants (including premature and low-birth-weight infants) and young children. These benefits are magnified with exclusive breastfeeding beyond 6 months of age. Human milk is uniquely superior to all other milk substitutes and is specifically tailored to meet the nutritional needs of the human infant. It has the appropriate balance of nutrients provided in easily digestible and bioavailable forms. The milk changes its composition, from colostrums for the newborn to mature milk for the older infant, to meet the nutrient needs of the growing infant. It provides generous amounts of carbohydrates, essential fatty acids, saturated fatty acids, medium-chain triglycerides, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, and cholester ol. The relatively low protein content presents a relatively modest nitrogen load to the immature kidney. Breastfeeding also has been linked with enhancement of cognitive development, with some studies showing evidence that these cognitive developmental benefits increased with the duration of breastfeeding and extended through the school-age years. According to loopholes, breastfeeding provides with the best possible food is particularly important for brain development. Current research, in food, insists that the brain is as important as weight gain, if not more so. The brain grows extremely rapidly during the 1st month of life. Only breast milk can provide the perfectly adopted food required for such growth. In addition, breast milk protects the infant against infection, not only because of its antibodies and â€Å"antibiotic properties†. (Sara Porter, 1982) Exclusively breastfeeding is the safe, sound and sustainable way to feed an infant for the first six months of life. But breastfeeding is important for more than six months. Experts now agree that breast milk can provide all that a baby normally needs for the first six months and no extra drinks or feeds are needed during this period. Exclusive breastfeeding means that the infant receives only breast milk, from his or her mother or a wet nurse or expressed breast milk and no other foods or drinks. (WHO 2002) Easy to digest and absorb human milk best meets an infant meets. The literature reports that human milk enhances motor and cognitive development and reduces infant morbidity, mortality, and the incidence of chronic diseases. Studies have shown that breastfed children perform better on tests of intellectual development than do formula-fed children and the benefits may extend into adulthood. Although more research is needed, the link between breastfeeding to a long chain fatty acids found in breast milk, which promote nervous system growth, brain development, and visual acuity. (JEANNETTE CRENSHAW2005). Williams and Jellife mentioned in their work that breast milk is the most valuable, the cheapest but the most neglected source of protein in the whole of the art and science of nutrition. Breastfeeding, or lactation, is the ideal method of feeding and nurturing infants. The Bellagio Child Survival Study Group identified breastfeeding in the first year as one of the most important strategies for improving child survival Internationally, the World Health Organization recommends that breastfeeding is continued up to 2 years of age or beyond, with appropriate supplementation of solid foods. Breastfeeding involves primary, and to a lesser extent, secondary prevention of acute and chronic diseases. Human milk is uniquely superior to all other milk substitutes and is specifically tailored to meet the nutritional needs of the human infant. It has the appropriate balance of nutrients provided in easily digestible and bioavailable forms According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, the breastfed infant is the reference against which all alternative feeding methods must be measured with regard to growth, health, development, and other outcomes. WHO mentioned that human milk has many beneficial effects on the health of infants (including premature and low-birth-weight infants) and young children. These benefits are magnified with exclusive breastfeeding and breastfeeding beyond 6 months of age Studies conducted by the Workgroup on breastfeeding science and society stated the benefits of breastfeeding have been criticized for methodological and analytical flaws including lack of control for confounding factors, poorly designed tools, the varying definition of breastfeeding, and researcher bias. However, professional health organizations stand behind their recommendations for promoting breastfeeding as the optimal food for human infants. Formula Feeding/ Bottle Feeding If breastmilk is not available. or you have opted to mix or bottlefeed your baby, one will have to start by selecting a formula. Bottles have the advantage of being familiar, socially acceptable and less time to consume than the other methods. When the mother’s condition is contraindicated to breastfeeding or simply chose not to breastfeed, they opt to commercial formulas. Pilliteri (2004) mentioned that women should use of commercial formulas because they closely mimic human milk. Infant formula remains an infant feeding option. The baby bottle has become a very visible part of Western culture, and increasingly, of other developed and developing nations. This ubiquitous image leads many people to believe that bottles and infant formula are necessary to parenting an infant, regardless of the fact that in most cases they are not. Infant formula is an industrially produced milk product designed for infant consumption. Usually, based on either cow or soy milk, infant formula strives to duplicate the nutrient content of natural human breast milk. Since the exact chemical properties of breast milk are still unknown, formula is necessarily an imperfect approximation. Its use, particularly in the third world, is somewhat contentious. Besides breast milk, infant formula is the only other infant milk which the medical community considers nutritionally acceptable for infants under the age of one year. Cows milk is not recommended because of its high protein and electrolyte (salt) content which may put a strain on an infants immature kidneys. Evaporated milk, although perhaps easier to digest due to the processing of the protein, is still nutritionally inadequate.(Wikipedia) Although infant formula cannot replicate all the qualities of breast-milk, it is the only safe alternative. If infant formula is not available, mothers may have to use inappropriate and potentially dangerous foods, such as gruel, or unmodified animal milk, to feed their babies. In contrast, infant formula products are manufactured using strict rules of hygiene and formulated according to recognized, international standards based on expert medical and nutritional opinion. (babymilk.com) To be fair, formula companies have produced milk for babies which, at least on paper, seem to resemble the real thing. The formula is definitely better than it used to be. But on close inspection, what the factories make doesnt quite measure up to what mom makes. It is nearly impossible for artificial baby milk manufacturers to make milk with nutrients even close to what mothers bodies can make. And these companies primary goal is to make a profit, so marketing and manufacturing issues influence what finally gets into the can. One of our concerns is that even though formula-fed infants appear to grow normally, are they really thriving? Thriving means more than just getting bigger. It means developing to the childs fullest physical, emotional, and intellectual potential. We just dont know about all the long-term effects of tampering with Mother Nature – though we do know that there are significant health differences between formula-fed and breastfed infants. Formulas are nothing more than a collection of dead nutrients. They do not contain living white cells, digestive enzymes, or immune factors. In terms of human history, they are a new experiment. MIXED FEEDING When an infant is partly breastfed and in part artificially, it can be said that he is mixed fed. This type of feeding is used as an alternative to mothers who could not exclusively breastfeed their infants. Part of the infant feeding comes from commercial formula milk. You can choose to continue giving your baby exclusively breast milk or introduce formula milk. If you want to mix breast and bottle, but do not want to use formula milk, you can express some of your own milk, which can then be given to your baby in a bottle by the father, another member of the family or a childminder. In this way, you will still ensure that your baby is only receiving breast milk. Or you may decide to feed your baby yourself when you are there and get his or her care to give him formula when you are away. The general advice is to not offer a breastfed baby a bottle before four weeks of age. This may lead to nipple confusion, which can quickly lead to the end of breastfeeding. During the first three to four weeks your baby will be learning and perfecting breastfeeding skills. Whilst introducing the bottle at one or two weeks of age may ensure that baby accepts the bottle later, you are taking a risk. Some babies easily go back and forth between breast and bottle, but many others do not. Getting a baby to accept a bottle at age two or three months may take some patience, but most babies will catch on after a few tries. Feeding on a bottle uses a different technique to feeding on the breast, and you may find that your baby takes a little time to get used to it. In fact, some babies seem to be determined that they will never get used to it, and moving to mixed feeding can become distressed and worrying event. A child’s intellectual development, which is to a degree nutritionally determined, is believed to be manifest eventually in his productivity and wages, primarily through mental development and school achievement (Selowsky, 1976, Taylor and Selowsky, 1973; Groosman and Edwards, 1977.) The examination has always been considered as an extremely important part of the educative process. It has been considered the examination trends to developmental powers which are use in everyday life. Academic performance aim to measure the pupils’ achievement as a result of instruction in a given subject. It shares the limitations with respect to outcomes that can not be measured like interest, appreciation, ability to think critically. FOREIGN STUDIES Researchers refer to a brain-growth spurt in infants when brain growth and development occurs most rapidly. The book Scientific Foundations of Pediatrics notes that the brain-growth spurt occurs after birth, and the function of neural tissues depends on the effective connections established between neurons and the structural integrity of each neuron. It adds that this period commences during the third trimester of pregnancy and lasts until about the child is 30 months of age. It is also during this time when nutritional deficiencies may threaten brain development that may, later on, show up as intellectual and cognitive impairment. In a study of 1,025 schoolchildren, Horwood and colleagues reported that breastfed children had LCPUFA’s in their diet (courtesy of breast milk) and had higher mean score on tests of cognitive ability, performed better on standardized tests of reading and math, and had higher levels of achievement in examinations as opposed to children who were weaned on diets lacking LCPUFA’s. Horwood also suggested that it was likely the increases reflected the effects of LCPUFA’s particularly DHA on early neurodevelopment. DHA is also important in visual development as it serves as a structural component of ocular neural tissues aside from being essential in myelination as it serves as an essential element in the myelin sheath. Rodgers B., et. al., also conducted a study on breastfeeding on 1978 entitled â€Å"Feeding in Infancy and Later Ability and Attainment’. Result of the study showed that these who were breastfed had higher levels of mental capacity than those bottle-fed with breast milk substitute. That said study involved over a thousand breastfed and over a thousand bottlefed whom were followed up until the age of 8 years. In Chicago, breastfed babies may grow up to be smarter adults, according to research that bolster the evidence linking nursing and intelligence. Most previous studies did measure breastfeeding’s effects on IQ into adulthood, and the few that did so ignored factors such as parents education and social status, said the researches, who took such as variables into account. In their study of 3,258 Danish men and women, the more babies were breastfed through nine months of age, the higher they scored on intelligence tests in their late teens and 20’s. Breastfeeding past nine months had no additional effect scores. The link can probably be explained by the effect of nutrients in mothers milk on the developing brain and benefits from physical and physiological relationship breastfeeding involves, researchers said mothers who takes time to breastfeed may spend more time interacting with youngster throughout childhood, which also could affect intelligence, the researchers added. In the study, mothers had been questioned about their breastfeeding practices when their youngsters were a year old. Those who had been breastfed for seven to nine months scored an average of about six points higher on IQ tests that those whose mothers said they nursed for less than one month. The gap â€Å"is not the difference between an Einstein and a mentally retarded child†, said study director June Manhover Reinisch. But she said it could be the difference â€Å"between normal and bright normal, or bright-normal and superior†. (TannerLindsey, 2002) It was also stressed in the research that the doctors who conducted the study believed that something intrinsic to breast milk faccounts for the IQ differences of the breastfed and bottle-fed babies. In all the IQ list which include verbal state, performance scale, and over all IQ, an 8.3 point advantages was seen among breastfed babies. According to an article written by Dr. Alicia Dermer and Dr. Anne Montgomery entitled â€Å"Breastfeeding: Good for Babies, Mothers and the Planet†, more and more research shows that breastfeeding leads to optimal brain development. They featured a study wherein the subjects were premature tubic-fed babies. Results showed that babies who received no breast milk had IQ eight points lower on average than the babies who received breast milk. This may be due to the special ingredients of breastmilk which are DHA (docosohexaenic acid) and AA (arachidonic acid) which contribute to brain and retinal development. Another study which was featured in Pediatrics Vol. 101 no 1 dated Jan. 1998 suggested that breast milk makes kids brighter. The study entitled â€Å"Breastfeeding and Later Cognitive and Academic Outcomes† by Prof. David M. Fergusson and L. John Horwood of Christ Church School of Medicine, New Zealand revealed that in an 18 year longitudinal study of over 1.000 children, those who were breast fed as infants had both better intelligence and greater academic achievement than those who were infant formula fed children. Breastfeeding also has been linked with enhancement of cognitive development, with some studies showing evidence that these cognitive developmental benefits increased with the duration of breastfeeding and extended through the school-age years ( Horwood LJ, Fergusson DM. Breastfeeding and later cognitive and academic outcomes. Pediatrics. 1998;101:E9. LOCAL STUDIES According to Corazon M. Cerdaà ±a (2000) at the start of the new milleneum, Year 2001, the Food and Nutrition Research and Institute (FNRI), Department Science conducted the latest update on the nutritional status of Filipino children and technology (DOST) in pursuit of the Institute’s mandates of monitoring the nutritional status of the Filipino citizenry. The nationwide survey covered the total of 12,425 children aged 0-10 years, comprised of 10,634 preschool-age children (0-5 years) and 1,791 school-age children (6-10 years). A two-stage sampling design with the barangays and the children as the primary and secondary sampling units, respectively, was employed. Weight and height/recumbent length measurements were taken from the subjects using standard techniques and compared with the WHO/NCHS international standards to asses nutritional status. Findings of the survey revealed that among the preschool-age children, underweight prevalence was 30.6%, underweight were 31.4%, and prevalence of thinness was 6.3%. Among the school-age children, a higher proportion of 32.9%, 41.1%, 6.5%, prevalence of underweight, underweight, thinness, respectively were shown. Compared with the survey done in 1998, prevalence of underweight and under height among 0-5 year old children generally decreased but thinness and overweight prevalence increased. However, among the 6-10 year-old children, there was a general increase in the prevalence rates of underweight, under height and overweight. Disaggregating by single age, the highest prevalence rate of all forms of malnutrition remained among the younger group of 1-2 year-old preschoolers. The prevalence of malnutrition between the preschool-age boys and girls did not differ much. However, among the school-age children, the boys were more at risk at all the three forms of malnutrition than the girl s. Considering the prevalence of malnutrition by region, Bicol region appeared to be the worst of in the underweight prevalence, in the ARMM for under height, in the Cagayan Valley for thinness. Cecilia A. Florencio’s (2001) study was concerned with the determinants of school-related behavior, in particular in the relationship between health and nutritional status and academic performance. The objective of the study relate to (1) nature, magnitude and distribution of health and nutritional problems of school children; (2) relationship between nutritional status and academic performance; (3) and effects on academic achievement of non-nutritional variables, specifically those recommended in the 1976 project SOUTEL Report. Some 2,304 pupils who were randomly selected from 64 schools in Region I, IV and National Capital Region in Luzon, Region VII in the Visayas and Region XII in Mindanao participated in the study. The others respondents were the pupil’s parents, teachers and school heads. Nutritional assessment was made using anthropometric, biochemical and clinical methods. The children’s mental ability and academic performance were gauged using local stan dardized tests recommended by the DECS. In general, the academic performance of the pupils was far from satisfactory, which mean test scores in various subjects not exceeding 50% of the total number of test items. Those in the lower grades did better than those in the upper grades. The significant positive relationship between the nutritional status in academic achievement remained even when relevant pupil factors, such as mental ability, visual ability, study habits and pre-school education were held constant. Moreover, even after taking into account the influence of a full set of relevant pupil, teacher, school and family related factors, the observed relationship between the two variables still surfaced. The superiority of breast milk over the commercially available infant milk preparations has been proven in many local as well as foreign literatures. These studies have shown that breastfed children more nourishes that bottle-fed Dr. Fe del Mundo in 1974 had shown s decline among Filipino infants of whom only 23% were breastfed, 60% were bottle-fed and 17% mixed fed in contrast to the study of Bulatao-jaime in 1965 where 62.1% of babies in Metro Manila were breastfed. Valdecanas, et al in 1981 cited the lack of determination to breastfed as the limiting condition that pushes potentially lactators to bottle-feed. (The Filipino Family Physician 1985) SYNTHESIS Family is the smallest unit of the society. The basic of its kind is composed of the mother, the father, and the child who is considered to be the treasure of the family. From conception to birth, everything is well provided in bringing up a good and bright child. Any infant arrival in the family is the most memorable and blissful moment a parent could ever experience. No amount of any tangible things can compare with the joy of having a child. It is within the family that determines how a child would be when he becomes an adult. Through the parents influence in particular with the mother, she delivers the most significant impact on the child’s nutrition, attitude, physical and mental growth. The brain develops through out infancy and childhood and gives rise to cognitive abilities that are multi dimensional and hierarchical. Abilities such as attention capacities and sped of processing appears to underlie other abilities such as learning, memory and executive function. Many of these abilities form what is known as intelligence and can be manifest in readily observable outcomes such as academic achievements. There are many test that adequately assess disabilities and of these the test reviewed in these paper are pertinent test of the cognitive abilities that develop during childhood, show variability in performance without ceiling or floor effects in normal population, withstand repeated administration overtime, maybe sensitive to detect nutritional effects, require few cross cultural modification and are attracted to children. With these concept the present study was carried out to determine how infant feeding affects the child’s mental ability and physical growth. Chapter III METHODOLOGY Research Method This chapter contains the Population and Sampling, Research Instruments, Research Locale, Validation of the Instrument, Data Gathering and Procedure, and, Statistical Treatment of Data. Retrospective and Comparative research design was utilized in this study. Population and Sampling 142 currently enrolled Grade 1 pupils in Columban College for the school year 2005-2006 , 105 pupils were utilized in this study. After verifying from the school registrar, the school principal provided the list of the total number of Grade 1 students for the year 2005-2006. The researcher used the simple random sampling to determine the respondents for the study. Research Instrument The study conducted in Columban College, Olongapo City. Demographic data on the name, relationship of the respondent to the subject, and the duration in caring for the pupil were gathered from the respondents. And the demographic data on the gender of the subjects were also recorded to serve as profile. The academic performance of Grade 1 pupils was based and evaluated from their final grade. The list of students was provided by the school principal. It is arranged alphabetically and separated according to sections. Other information pertaining to the type of feeding technique used was obtained through questionnaires provided by the researchers and was answered by the respondents. Research Locale The researchers conducted this study at Columban College, Olongapo City. Columban College which was under the management of the Columban Fathers and Sisters started to serve the people of the Olongapo City on the school year 1961-1962. Knowing the Catholic education was one of the primary needs of the community and that the elementary school is the base upon which all education rests, the elementary department was opened. But because the college was under staff and still in its budding period, the elementary department on school year 1961 to 1963, was under the supervision of its sister institution the St. Joseph School. In the opening of the school year 1963-64, with Sis. Mary Mechtilde, and six faculty members to start with, the elementary department separated from St Joseph School. It had then the population of 557 pupils of which 66 pupils graduated from kindergarten and 38 in grade six. Teachers hold classes in Quonset houses while a 2 storey edifice was being built. On the later part of 1966, a 4 storey building with 28 rooms was built and by 1967 the first three rooms of each storey were utilized.By the end of the school year the 4 storey edifice was completed and was utilized for classrooms on the beginning of school year 1969-70 In 1987, the administration of the college was handed by Bishop Henry Byrne, D.D. to the Vincentian Fathers headed by Rev. Fr. Constancio Gan, C.M. as Director and Rev. Fr. Justo Moro, C.M. as Treasurer. Within a short span of time, the new administrators made several substantial improvements on the physical set-up in the main campus and started new constructions of buildings in Barretto which branched out the elementary school department. Behind this progress was the adaption of new policies and guidelines while struggling to keep the whole college financially afloat in the midst of prevailing economic crisis. Columban College is committed to sound, complete and Christian education. Its goal is the integral formation of a human formation with a profound faith in God., his fellowman and himself, who can develop harmoniously his physical, moral and intellectual talents, acquire a more perfect sense of responsibility and a correct use of freedom, and be educated for active participation in social life as stated in the Mission Statement for all Catholic Schools in the Diocese of Iba. Validation of Instrument The validation of instrument was done in this study. The researchers approached 3 persons in the field of education, medicine and psychology that signed and validated the research instrument. Upon hearing the reasons and purpose of this study, their signature was obtained. Data Gathering and Procedure A written letter prepared by the researchers and signed by the research adviser and college Dean was secured first. The steps that are followed to collects data include the submission of letter to the Principal of Columban College seeking permission to conduct the study. Upon approval from the principal the letter was presented and the purpose of the questionnaire was explained to the grade 1 class advisers and to the respondents. The researchers distributed the questionnaires to the respondents. The questionnaires answered by the respondents were collected by the researchers. STATISTICAL TREATMENT OF DATA Statistics are used to analyzed and evaluate gathered data. The following statistical instruments were applied to get the desired analysis PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION This is a section where in tallied frequency will be changed into a percentage value. A percentage distribution is used to combine the result of certain groups of unequal size or proportion. The formula is as follows: Percentage % = # of respondents per category Total # of respondents CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA The chapter presents the data gathered by the researcher in accordance with the specific problems posed in the study. It discusses the result of each statistical treatment applied in the analysis and interpretation of data gathered. This chapter is divided into three parts, namely: Part I, Demographic Profile of the subjects, Part II, Different Infant Feeding Techniques used, Part III, the result of the test on the comparison between the different infant feeding techniques. PART I Demographic Profile of Grade 1 pupils in Columban College During the school year 2005- 2006. The population group of the study was composed of 73 percent of Grade 1 pupils from Columban College Table 1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Grade 1 pupils of Columban College according to gender. Gender Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Male 50 48% Female 55 52% Total 105 100% Figure 3 Graphical Representations of Grade 1 pupils of Columban College according to gender. Interpretation: Table 1 and figure 3 show the frequency and percentage distribution of the sample according to gender. Males account for 50 which is 48 % while females account for 55 which is 52 %. Analysis: Majority of the subjects were female. Part II Different Infant Feeding Techniques used Table 2 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Different Infant Feeding Techniques Used Infant Feeding Techniques Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Breastfeeding 34 32.38 % Bottle Feeding 35 33.33 % Mixed Feeding 36 34.29 % Total 105 100 % Figure 4 Graphical Representation of the Different Infant Feeding Techniques Used Interpretation: The above table 2 and figure 4 shows that mixed feeding rank first among the feeding technique practice by primary caregivers with a total number of 36 (34.29%), followed by bottle feeding with a total number of 35 (33.33%), and ranked third is breastfeeding with a total number of 34 (32.38%). Analysis: Due to the busy schedule of mothers nowadays, helping their husband earn and income or taking care of their other children and sometimes doing the household chores, mothers tend to cut short breastfeeding their infants and resort in the next best alternative source of infant nutrition which is formula milk. By doing so the infant will have two source of nutrition which is a combination of breastfeeding and bottle feeding. CHAPTER V SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION This chapter presents the result of the study. Presented are the conclusions drawn in the light of the findings of the study, as well as, the recommendation. A. Summary of Findings The study aims to assess the different infant feeding techniques in comparison to the academic performance of Grade 1 pupils in Columban College during the school year 2005 -2006. Specifically it sought to answer the following questions: 1. What is the profile of Grade 1 pupils of Columban College according to gender? 2. What is the type of infant feeding techniques practiced by the primary caregiver of the pupil? 3. What is the difference among the different infant feeding techniques used by the primary caregiver of the pupil and the latter’s academic performance in the current academic year? This comparative study uses retrospective and a survey questionnaire approach personally conducted by the primary caregiver on a one on one basis.The study involved 105 grade 1 pupils enrolled in Columban College during the school year 2005-2006 which is 74% of the total grade 1 population which is 105. The Kruskal-Wallis was employed to prove or disapprove the hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the different infant feeding technique and the academic performance of Grade 1 pupils of Columban College. Findings The following are the findings of the study, the majority of the subjects were: a) According to Gender Female = 52% b) Infant feeding used Mixed Feeding = 34.29% B. Conclusion Based on the data gathered, the study disclosed the following conclusions: 1) The study revealed that majority or 52% of 105 Grade 1 pupils in Columban College during the school year 2005-2006 are female. 2) The majority or 34.29% of the primary caregiver of Grade 1 pupils in Columban College during the school year 2005-2006 used mixed feeding technique. 3) The result of the test on the difference between the infant feeding techniques and academic performance revealed that the feeding techniques did not significantly affect the academic performance of Grade 1 pupils of Columban College. C. Recommendation Based on the findings and conclusions drawn, the following recommendations are forwarded: 1. Future Researchers, Professionals, and Health Care Groups who would like to continue and adopt this study should conduct it in a bigger population and to add the different variables that could affect the academic performance of the pupils. 2. If a bigger population would be adopted, a longer time frame to conduct similar study is needed. 3. Parents and Teachers must coordinate with each other to help and improve the child’s academic capacity. 4. Although â€Å"breast milk† is still the best for babies, future parents are given the option to make wise decisions regarding what is the best source of infant nutrition for their children that would currently fit their economic status, and lifestyle. BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS Del Mundo , Fe. (1985). Manual on Infant Nutrition with Emphasis and Breasfeeding for Philippines Medical Colleges. Philippines; Nutrition Center of the Philippines Kozier, Barbara.(2004). Fundamentals of Nursing. 7th edition: Pearson Education South Asia PTE LTD. Lazaro, Cynthia, M.D.(1985). The evidence of breastfeeding and brain development: The Filipino Family Physician, Rodgers, B. (1996). Nutrition throughout the Life Cycle. 3rd edition. U.S.A.: Mosby Year Book, Inc. Journals Pediatrics Breast milk makes kids brighter, study suggests. New Zealand: January 1998 Florencio, Cecilia A. Child, School, Home: â€Å"Determinants of Academic Performance.† Edukasyon A Quarterly Monograph Series of the UP Education Reach Program (ERP), Vol.1 No.2. April-June 1995 Mercado, Belinda, The Relationship Between Selected and Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors to the Academic Performance and Scholastic Ability of Grades IV and V Pupil AUF, S.Y. 1991-1992., Philippines:1992. Bellagio Child Survival Study Group. Child Survival V: Knowledge into action for child survival. Lancet. 2003;362:323-327. World Health Organization. Community-based strategies for breastfeeding promotion and support in developing countries, Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2003. Workgroup on Breastfeeding Science and Society. Breastfeeding: Science and Society, Vatican City, Italy: Pontificia Acemica Sientiarum; 1996. World Health Organization, United Nations Childrens Fund. Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding, Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2003. American Academy of Pediatrics. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics. 1997;100:1035-1039. Website babymilk.com/infants/feeding_options http:/www.askbaby.com/topic/mixed-feeding.html wikepedia.com Research Papers on Breastfeeding Standardized TestingEnzymes Proteins Amino AcidsChildhood Obesity EssayWho has Impacted Your Life the Most EssayYear Round SchoolingThe Broken FamilyPlastic Surgery EssayBooker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells-Barnett